Approximately 4,500 years ago, a remarkable wonder was constructed in Egypt, one that continues to captivate people’s imaginations even today – the Great Pyramid of Giza. Rising to a height of 147 meters, it held the title of the world’s tallest structure for over 4,000 years. To create this monumental edifice, massive stones were employed, with an estimated total weight of 6 million tonnes. In contrast, the contemporary Burj Khalifa, the world’s tallest building, weighs a mere 500,000 tonnes. The question that has left people awestruck for centuries is how this magnificent structure was constructed.
During that era, people lacked the modern machinery, cranes, and technology we possess today, and even wheels were not part of their toolkit. Yet, they managed to build a monument that endures to this day, standing tall for over 4,500 years, withstanding the elements such as harsh summers, storms, torrential rains, and the test of time. No other ancient structure has endured for as long or matched its scale. How was this remarkable feat accomplished?
“The Great Pyramid is arguably the most enigmatic structure on the face of the Earth. Built around 2,500 BC, it is the tallest structure on the Earth for more than 3,500 years. Built as gargantuan tombs of shining white limestone, the Pyramids are designed to hide the dark secrets of the dead.”
As we venture further into the past, the task of deciphering precise events becomes increasingly challenging. The Great Pyramid of Giza is believed to have been constructed in 2560 BC, during the reign of Pharaoh Khufu. The Pharaohs ruled ancient Egypt, with Pharaoh Khufu belonging to the fourth dynasty of the Old Kingdom of Egypt. Much remains uncertain about Pharaoh Khufu’s reign, with historians providing varying estimates for its duration, ranging from 23 to more than 60 years.
This remarkable pyramid, situated on the west bank of the River Nile, is not alone in its grandeur. When viewing Map, images or videos, you’ll notice two other pyramids located nearby. Among these three, the tallest and most iconic is the Pyramid of Giza, also known as the Pyramid of Khufu. Slightly smaller is the Pyramid of Khafre, constructed by Khufu’s son, Khafre. The third and smallest pyramid is the Pyramid of Menkaure, attributed to Khafre’s son. Together with these pyramids, the site also encompasses the Great Sphinx, various burial tombs, and smaller pyramids. In total, there are approximately 118 pyramids of diverse shapes and sizes. Many of these structures have weathered over time, while only a few remain in relatively good condition. Notably, these three pyramids are among the best-preserved. It is important to understand the purpose behind their construction.
These pyramids were constructed for the same reason that prompted the creation of many ancient monuments: they were intended as tombs for the Pharaohs. Ancient Egyptians held strong beliefs in the afterlife, thinking that existence continued beyond death. According to their beliefs, the soul of a deceased individual embarked on a journey to the underworld, where it faced judgment by the Gods. Those who had lived virtuous lives were destined for immortality in the afterlife. To prepare for this journey, Pharaohs commissioned the construction of tombs while they reigned. These tombs were laden with substantial quantities of food, treasures, jewelry, furniture, clothing, and other items to facilitate their use in the afterlife. Following the Pharaoh’s death, their bodies were mummified and then placed in a wooden or stone sarcophagus.
One may question the basis for this understanding. There are two primary reasons. First, inscriptions and texts have been discovered on various pyramids and sarcophagi, offering insights into the customs and rituals of the ancient Egyptians. Second, the majority of historical pyramids in Egypt and Sudan were used for burial purposes. However, it’s essential to acknowledge that the Great Pyramid of Giza does not contain substantial evidence corroborating its function as a tomb, leading to alternative theories. Archaeologists entering the Great Pyramid found three relics and an empty sarcophagus, presumed to belong to Khufu. The treasures that originally surrounded the sarcophagus are thought to have been looted before archaeologists arrived at the site.
Individuals who dispute the tomb theory have put forth unusual alternative hypotheses. One prominent theory suggests that the Great Pyramid was a power plant capable of generating electricity. Proponents of this theory argue that ancient Egyptians possessed advanced technology, including the knowledge of harnessing electricity. To substantiate their claims, they point to certain ancient Egyptian temple artworks, which they interpret as depictions of light bulbs. This theory posits that the Egyptians had invented light bulbs, but this knowledge was later lost. Such conspiracy theories tend to arise when concrete evidence is lacking. In this case, the artwork in question portrays Egyptian mythological stories rather than electrical appliances.
Another theory posits that the pyramids were grain storage facilities. This idea was famously proposed by American politician Ben Carson in 1998, who suggested that the pyramids were constructed by Joseph, the father of Jesus Christ, to store grains. These theories are often the result of political figures seeking to appease religious sentiments. However, the consensus among historians is unequivocal: the primary purpose of the Great Pyramid of Giza was as a tomb.
Now, we arrive at the most enigmatic question: How were these pyramids constructed? The manner in which these structures, rising to 147 meters, with massive stones weighing between 2.5 to 80 tonnes each, were meticulously carved and evenly stacked in the absence of modern tools and the use of wheels is an enigma. Additionally, these feats were accomplished within a mere 20 years. The Great Pyramid of Giza is believed to have been completed in this relatively brief period. Various theories have been put forward to explain this extraordinary achievement. In the following sections, we will explore these theories, excluding the bizarre conspiracy theories, and address the misconceptions portrayed in films depicting the use of slave labor in pyramid construction.
“Poor slaves, subjected to harsh conditions and relentless abuse under the watchful eyes of their supervisors. This image might be familiar from movies and popular narratives. For an extended period in history, it was widely believed that the pyramids were constructed by slaves. Herodotus, a Greek historian from the 5th century BC, was the first to suggest this notion. However, contemporary knowledge has debunked this notion.
In reality, the builders of the pyramids were highly skilled laborers who were well cared for. They received an ample supply of food, which made them stronger and better nourished than the average Egyptian of their time. These laborers resided in nearby communities and received support from various groups, including farmers who assisted with construction during their off-seasons. The people of the kingdom rallied together to support this national project, united in their loyalty to the Pharaoh.
Approximately 20,000 to 30,000 workers toiled for ten hours each day in the construction of the Great Pyramid of Giza.
In terms of construction materials, approximately 5.5 million tonnes of limestone, 8,000 tonnes of granite, and 500,000 tonnes of mortar were employed. These materials were mainly sourced from the surrounding areas, with some brought from Southern Egypt, situated roughly 800 kilometers away.
The process of cutting these rocks was facilitated by the use of copper tools, the prevalent metal of the time. Harder granite stones were fashioned with the assistance of dolerite. Additionally, the builders employed innovative techniques, such as identifying cracks and cavities in the rocks, inserting water-soaked wooden wedges into these fissures, and allowing the expanding wedges to fracture the stones.
An essential question arises: how were these massive stones transported? As the period lacked wheeled carts, a credible theory suggests that rafts were used to ferry the stones from quarries. Upon arrival at the construction site, these stones were positioned using sledges over wet terrain. This method, unveiled in a 2014 study, is inspired by a 4,500-year-old wooden ramp discovered by a team of English and French archaeologists. This advanced understanding of wet sand’s properties—when mixed with water at a specific ratio of 2% to 5%—reduces friction between the surface and the objects being pulled.
Another puzzle involves the means of stacking these stones upon one another. The common approach involves using a pulley system, which was effective in theory. However, wheels as we know them today did not exist in Egypt during the 4th Dynasty, apart from pottery wheels. The absence of wheels led to the development of an efficient ramp system. One theory proposes a long, straight slope, accompanied by a system of wooden pillars on either side, allowing ropes to be used for hoisting the stones. This is depicted in ancient artwork from the tomb of Djehutihotep, indicating water being poured onto the sand in front of the sledges, which the physicists Daniel Bonn and his team found to reduce friction, supporting the validity of this theory. Scholars also suggest that each time a new layer of the pyramid was completed, a new slope was fashioned, and its tilt was kept minimal by creating longer slopes.
Furthermore, it is speculated that levers were utilized to stack the stones. The principle involves creating a fulcrum with a high midpoint and a long pole weighted on one end, which facilitated lifting and placing stones. This method is reminiscent of the ancient Egyptian ‘shadoof’ mechanism used for drawing water from the Nile to irrigate fields.
While these theories seem plausible, they are incomplete in explaining the precise construction methods. Furthermore, the construction timeframe poses a significant challenge to these theories. The Great Pyramid was completed in a mere 20 years. If each stone required transportation using these techniques, a stone had to be placed every 3 minutes, every day, throughout the year, which appears highly improbable.
Ultimately, the construction of the pyramids remains a mystery to this day. Both of these theories seem valid, but they do not fully elucidate the entire process. What is known is that the bottom layers were assembled without the use of mortar, with mortar added to the subsequent layers to enhance structural stability, allowing the pyramids to withstand the test of time, including multiple earthquakes.
A lingering mystery relates to the mortar’s composition; while scientists understand the chemistry, they have been unable to replicate it. Finally, the outermost layer of the pyramids was made from fine, white limestone, which reflected sunlight brilliantly, creating a radiant white appearance. This effect has faded over thousands of years, yet some remnants of the white layer remain visible on the Pyramid of Khafre.
Transitioning from the construction aspects, let’s delve into the architectural design of the pyramids.
“It’s undeniably captivating. Were you aware that the pyramids possess an extraordinary architectural feature? They are meticulously oriented to face precisely North, East, South, and West, with a minuscule margin of error, merely one-fifteenth of a degree. The precision in aligning the pyramids with these cardinal directions is a remarkable achievement, particularly given the absence of compasses and modern technology like GPS during that era.
Researchers have ventured to propose theoretical explanations for this astounding level of precision. One prevailing theory revolves around the use of the Autumn Equinox, a celestial event when Earth’s axial tilt results in equal day and night lengths. During the Autumn Equinox, shadows cast on the ground align perfectly with the East and West directions. It is conjectured that the Egyptians could have employed this phenomenon to align the pyramids accurately, with the degree of error in the pyramid’s orientation matching the shadows during this astronomical event.
Another theory delves into the realm of constellations. Proponents of this theory suggest that the ancient Egyptians used the stars in the night sky to guide their architectural designs. In 1989, Robert Bauval, an author and Egyptology enthusiast, introduced the Orion Correlation Theory. This theory posits that the three pyramids at Giza were intentionally aligned to mimic the three stars in Orion’s Belt. According to this theory, the ancient Egyptians possessed a profound understanding of astronomy, observing and studying celestial bodies, and even coordinating agricultural activities with the positions of stars.
However, it is worth noting that the Orion Correlation Theory is considered a fringe theory, meaning it falls outside the mainstream consensus. Critics argue that the three Giza pyramids were not conceived and built simultaneously, and empirical astronomical observations in 1999 revealed that the pyramids do not align perfectly with the Orion’s Belt stars. This discrepancy can be attributed to the gradual shifts in the position of constellations over thousands of years.
This theory serves as a classic example of human attempts to discern patterns even in cases where none exist. When concrete evidence is scarce, and a precise explanation remains elusive, we tend to generate our hypotheses, seeking connections wherever possible, and as a result, we may come to accept these notions as factual. When this inclination is taken to extremes, it leads to peculiar theories, such as the belief that aliens constructed the pyramids, as some contend that the monumental achievement was beyond human capability.
In my view, such theories run counter to the principles of scientific thinking. They represent a shortcut approach to resolving unanswered questions in the absence of compelling evidence. A more prudent approach involves acknowledging the established facts, clearly delineating what remains unknown, and thereby providing a foundation for future generations of archaeologists and historians to conduct thorough research and unveil comprehensive solutions and explanations for these enduring mysteries.
