1. Write a note on the National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009. (20 marks)
The National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM), 2009, was adopted by the Government of India to strengthen the country’s capacity to manage and mitigate disasters effectively. The policy aims to make India disaster resilient by adopting a proactive approach toward disaster prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery. It emphasizes the need for community participation, capacity building, and risk reduction in disaster management. The policy is based on the recognition that disaster management requires a multi-disciplinary approach involving various stakeholders, including government agencies, civil society, the private sector, and local communities.
Key objectives of the policy include:
- Risk Reduction: The policy aims to reduce the risks associated with natural and man-made disasters through the development of early warning systems, risk assessment, hazard mapping, and proper urban planning. It focuses on reducing the vulnerability of communities, especially the most marginalized sections, to disasters.
- Preparedness and Response: It emphasizes the importance of preparedness, training, and creating awareness among the public about disaster risks. The policy also provides a framework for coordinated and effective response during disasters, involving all levels of government and stakeholders.
- Disaster Recovery: Post-disaster recovery is also a major focus. The policy seeks to ensure that the process of recovery is quick, effective, and sustainable, especially in rebuilding infrastructure and livelihoods for affected populations.
- Institutional Framework: The policy establishes a clear institutional structure for disaster management at national, state, and district levels. The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), headed by the Prime Minister, is the apex body responsible for formulating and implementing policies related to disaster management. At the state and district levels, similar bodies are set up for localized management.
- Capacity Building: The policy stresses the need to build the capacity of both government and non-governmental organizations involved in disaster management. This includes training personnel, developing technical skills, and enhancing the capabilities of local communities to cope with disasters.
- Sustainability: The policy emphasizes the importance of integrating disaster risk reduction measures into the country’s development process. It also encourages sustainable development practices that minimize environmental degradation, which often exacerbates the impacts of disasters.
In conclusion, the National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009, reflects India’s commitment to addressing the growing risks posed by disasters and building a disaster-resilient nation. It provides a comprehensive framework to prevent and mitigate disasters while improving response and recovery efforts through coordinated actions across all sectors of society.
2. Examine the relationship between disaster and development. (20 marks)
The relationship between disaster and development is complex and multi-dimensional, as disasters can have significant impacts on the developmental process, and the development process itself can influence the vulnerability of communities to disasters. Understanding this relationship is critical for fostering sustainable development and minimizing disaster risks.
Impact of Disasters on Development:
- Setback to Economic Growth: Disasters, whether natural or man-made, can severely disrupt economic growth. For instance, floods, earthquakes, or cyclones can destroy infrastructure, disrupt trade, and halt industrial and agricultural production. The damage caused can lead to a temporary or even permanent decline in economic activity, hindering poverty reduction efforts and diminishing livelihoods, especially in developing nations.
- Displacement and Migration: Disasters often lead to the displacement of populations, resulting in the destruction of homes, loss of income, and the breakdown of social systems. Migrants may seek refuge in urban areas, creating pressure on already strained resources such as housing, healthcare, and education. This leads to increased poverty and inequality, further stalling development.
- Increased Vulnerability: Disasters disproportionately affect vulnerable populations, including the poor, elderly, women, and children. These groups often have limited access to resources and are less able to recover from the impacts of disasters. This exacerbates social inequalities and hampers efforts to achieve inclusive development. Furthermore, communities in vulnerable regions, such as flood-prone or coastal areas, are more likely to experience frequent and severe disasters, deepening the cycle of poverty and underdevelopment.
Impact of Development on Disaster Risk:
- Urbanization and Risk Exposure: Rapid and unplanned urbanization, often associated with development, can increase disaster risk. Poorly constructed buildings, lack of adequate drainage systems, and congested urban spaces can worsen the impact of natural hazards, such as floods or earthquakes. Urbanization also leads to environmental degradation, such as deforestation, which can increase the likelihood of floods, landslides, and soil erosion.
- Environmental Degradation: Development activities, particularly in industrialized sectors and agriculture, can contribute to environmental degradation. Deforestation, overexploitation of natural resources, and pollution of water bodies can heighten the vulnerability of communities to disasters. For example, soil erosion due to deforestation increases the risk of landslides during heavy rainfall, and pollution can lead to health disasters.
- Lack of Disaster Risk Reduction in Development Planning: Often, development projects are implemented without adequately considering the risks posed by natural hazards. This lack of integration of disaster risk reduction (DRR) measures into development planning can lead to an increase in vulnerability. For instance, constructing roads and buildings in flood-prone areas without proper flood management measures can result in greater damage during a flood event.
The Need for Integrating Disaster Risk Reduction and Development:
To create a sustainable development model, it is essential to integrate disaster risk reduction (DRR) strategies into development planning. This means considering disaster risks at the outset of development projects, implementing measures that reduce vulnerability, and building resilience in communities. Some key approaches include:
- Mainstreaming DRR in Policies: Integrating disaster risk management into national, regional, and local development policies is critical. This includes incorporating risk assessments in development projects, enforcing building codes, and improving infrastructure resilience.
- Building Resilient Infrastructure: Ensuring that infrastructure, such as roads, schools, and hospitals, is built to withstand disasters can help maintain the developmental progress even in the face of hazards.
- Community-Based Development: Empowering local communities to engage in decision-making and planning processes allows them to develop disaster-resilient strategies suited to their specific needs and vulnerabilities.
In conclusion, the relationship between disaster and development is one of mutual influence. Disasters can derail development efforts, while poorly planned development can increase the risk and severity of disasters. A holistic approach that integrates disaster risk reduction into development policies is essential to achieving long-term sustainable development and reducing vulnerability to future disasters.
3. Enumerate the statutory provisions for mainstreaming disaster risk reduction. (10 marks)
The mainstreaming of disaster risk reduction (DRR) is essential to reduce vulnerability and improve resilience in disaster-prone areas. Several statutory provisions have been introduced in India to integrate DRR into the national and state governance frameworks.
- The Disaster Management Act, 2005: The Disaster Management Act is a key legislative provision that paved the way for institutionalizing disaster management in India. The Act established the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), headed by the Prime Minister, to oversee disaster management strategies. It mandates the formulation of disaster management plans at national, state, and district levels. It also promotes disaster preparedness, mitigation, and response and encourages integrating these measures into development planning processes.
- The National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM), 2009: This policy emphasizes risk reduction, preparedness, and the involvement of local communities in disaster management. It guides the development of strategies for mainstreaming DRR into development activities, including environmental protection, housing, and urban planning.
- Building Codes and Standards: The National Building Code of India (NBC), along with other guidelines, prescribes norms for the construction of buildings that can withstand natural hazards like earthquakes, floods, and cyclones. The code aims to reduce risks to life and property during disasters.
- Environmental Protection Act, 1986: This Act is concerned with safeguarding the environment and preventing ecological damage that can exacerbate the impacts of natural disasters. It encourages the conservation of resources, afforestation, and the management of waste and pollution.
- State Disaster Management Plans: Every state and Union Territory in India has formulated its disaster management plan in accordance with the provisions of the Disaster Management Act, focusing on the integration of DRR into development policies, including hazard mapping, early warning systems, and mitigation measures.
These statutory provisions are intended to integrate DRR at all levels of governance, ensuring that disaster risk reduction is incorporated into policies, infrastructure, urban planning, and community development.
4. Explain the case study of ‘The Indian Ocean Tsunami, 2004’. (10 marks)
The Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004 was one of the deadliest natural disasters in modern history, affecting coastal communities in 14 countries, including India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Maldives. It was caused by a massive undersea earthquake off the west coast of northern Sumatra in Indonesia, which had a magnitude of 9.1–9.3 on the Richter scale, resulting in a series of powerful tsunamis.
Key Events and Impacts:
- The Tsunami: The earthquake triggered a massive tsunami on December 26, 2004. The waves, some as high as 30 meters, struck coastal areas within hours of the earthquake, devastating towns and villages, and leading to widespread destruction.
- Casualties and Damage: The tsunami caused an estimated 230,000–280,000 deaths across the affected region, with Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and India experiencing the highest fatalities. It also led to the displacement of millions of people, and the damage to homes, infrastructure, and livelihoods was staggering. In India, Tamil Nadu and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands were among the worst-hit regions.
- Response and Recovery: In the immediate aftermath, countries around the Indian Ocean and the international community responded with emergency aid, including food, water, and medical supplies. Relief operations were led by governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and international bodies like the United Nations. Over time, reconstruction efforts focused on rebuilding homes, restoring livelihoods, and providing psychological support to affected communities.
- Lessons Learned: The 2004 tsunami highlighted critical gaps in early warning systems and disaster preparedness. Although the region was prone to earthquakes and tsunamis, there was no regional tsunami warning system in place at that time. In the aftermath of the disaster, countries in the Indian Ocean region, led by the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System (IOTWS), established early warning systems for tsunamis to minimize the loss of life in future occurrences.
- Impact on Disaster Management: The 2004 tsunami reinforced the need for robust disaster management strategies, including community preparedness, the development of early warning systems, and greater international collaboration in disaster response and recovery.
5. Discuss the types of natural disasters. (10 marks)
Natural disasters can be broadly categorized based on their origin, frequency, and impact. These disasters can be caused by geological, meteorological, hydrological, and biological phenomena. Below are the major types of natural disasters:
- Geological Disasters:
- Earthquakes: Sudden shaking or movement of the Earth’s surface caused by the release of energy in the Earth’s crust. Earthquakes can result in loss of life, building collapses, and landslides.
- Volcanic Eruptions: The eruption of magma, ash, and gases from beneath the Earth’s surface. Volcanic eruptions can cause destruction through lava flow, ash fallout, and pyroclastic flows, affecting large areas and populations.
- Landslides: The downward movement of rock, soil, or debris on a slope, often triggered by heavy rainfall, earthquakes, or volcanic activity. Landslides can bury villages, roads, and agricultural lands.
- Meteorological Disasters:
- Cyclones (Hurricanes or Typhoons): Intense storms characterized by strong winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surges. Cyclones can cause flooding, widespread destruction of infrastructure, and loss of life, especially in coastal areas.
- Tornadoes: Violently rotating columns of air that cause damage through high winds. Tornadoes can level buildings, uproot trees, and create widespread destruction in their path.
- Heatwaves: Prolonged periods of excessively hot weather, often leading to health issues such as heatstroke, dehydration, and even fatalities.
- Hydrological Disasters:
- Floods: Overflow of water onto land that is usually dry, caused by heavy rainfall, snowmelt, or dam failures. Floods can damage crops, homes, and infrastructure and lead to widespread displacement.
- Droughts: Prolonged periods of insufficient rainfall that result in water shortages, crop failures, and famine. Droughts affect agricultural productivity and the availability of freshwater resources.
- Tsunamis: Large ocean waves caused by underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides. Tsunamis can inundate coastal areas, causing significant damage and loss of life.
- Biological Disasters:
- Pandemics: Widespread outbreaks of infectious diseases, such as COVID-19 or the Spanish flu, that affect large populations. Pandemics can strain healthcare systems and disrupt economies and daily life.
- Plagues and Pest Infestations: The spread of harmful organisms (e.g., locusts, rats, or viruses) that destroy crops, spread disease, or disrupt local ecosystems.
These natural disasters have diverse causes and impacts, but they often share the common characteristic of threatening the safety, livelihoods, and sustainability of affected populations. Effective disaster preparedness, early warning systems, and responsive recovery strategies are essential for minimizing the impacts of natural disasters.
6. Write a note on the types of traditional knowledge. (6 marks)
Traditional knowledge refers to the accumulated wisdom, practices, and skills developed over time by communities based on their relationship with the environment, culture, and social practices. The key types of traditional knowledge include:
- Ecological Knowledge: This knowledge pertains to the sustainable use of natural resources, understanding ecosystems, biodiversity, and conservation techniques passed down through generations. For example, traditional farming practices or water management systems in arid regions.
- Medicinal Knowledge: This includes the use of local herbs, plants, and remedies for health and healing. Many indigenous communities have rich knowledge of medicinal plants and their therapeutic uses.
- Cultural and Ritual Knowledge: This encompasses traditions, ceremonies, rituals, and cultural practices that define the identity of communities. It is often tied to the spiritual and social aspects of the community.
- Craftsmanship and Artistic Knowledge: This involves skills related to art, craftsmanship, and architecture, which include traditional weaving, pottery, and construction techniques that reflect the culture and history of the community.
Traditional knowledge is an integral part of local culture and community resilience, especially during crises such as natural disasters.
7. Highlight the concept of social and economic rehabilitation. (6 marks)
Social and economic rehabilitation refers to the processes of restoring and improving the social well-being and economic status of individuals and communities after a disaster, conflict, or other traumatic events.
- Social Rehabilitation: This involves the recovery of social bonds, community networks, and psychological support systems. It includes providing mental health services, reuniting families, supporting social integration, and addressing social vulnerabilities like gender or caste discrimination.
- Economic Rehabilitation: Focuses on restoring livelihoods, employment opportunities, and economic infrastructure. This includes providing financial assistance, training, and tools for income generation, rebuilding damaged businesses, and supporting economic recovery initiatives to ensure long-term sustainability.
Both components aim to empower affected populations to regain their autonomy, improve their quality of life, and reduce poverty.
8. Discuss the key components of the disaster preparedness framework. (6 marks)
The disaster preparedness framework ensures that communities and governments are ready to respond effectively to disasters. Key components include:
- Risk Assessment: Identifying and analyzing potential hazards, vulnerabilities, and risks specific to the region, such as earthquakes, floods, or tsunamis.
- Early Warning Systems: Establishing systems to predict and communicate imminent threats to the population, ensuring timely evacuation and preparation.
- Resource Mobilization: Ensuring that necessary resources (e.g., medical supplies, food, water, and shelter) are readily available in the event of a disaster.
- Training and Capacity Building: Equipping individuals and communities with the skills to respond to disasters, including first aid, search and rescue, and disaster response coordination.
- Community Involvement: Involving local communities in disaster risk reduction activities, including developing emergency response plans and evacuation drills.
- Coordination and Communication: Creating networks between government agencies, NGOs, and the private sector for coordinated disaster management efforts.
9. Highlight the principles of community-based disaster management. (6 marks)
Community-based disaster management (CBDM) emphasizes the active involvement of local communities in disaster preparedness, response, and recovery. Key principles include:
- Local Knowledge Integration: Incorporating indigenous knowledge and local resources to tailor disaster management strategies to the community’s specific needs and vulnerabilities.
- Community Empowerment: Enabling communities to take ownership of disaster preparedness, through training, awareness campaigns, and building local leadership.
- Participation: Encouraging the active participation of all community members, including vulnerable groups such as women, children, the elderly, and people with disabilities, in planning and decision-making processes.
- Collaboration: Encouraging partnerships between local government, NGOs, and the community to enhance resource sharing and support.
- Sustainability: Ensuring that disaster management practices are sustainable, focusing on long-term resilience and preparedness.
- Capacity Building: Strengthening community capabilities to respond to disasters through continuous training, simulations, and resource mobilization.
10. What do you mean by epidemics? (6 marks)
An epidemic refers to the rapid spread of infectious diseases within a specific geographical area or population. Epidemics can occur when a new infectious agent (e.g., virus, bacteria) spreads rapidly, often resulting in a high number of cases within a short period. Epidemics can be localized or widespread, affecting large groups of people.
Epidemics often lead to significant social, economic, and health impacts. Examples include the Ebola outbreak, the Zika virus epidemic, and the more recent COVID-19 pandemic. Key characteristics of an epidemic include:
- Outbreak: The disease spreads beyond expected levels within a community or region.
- Transmission: It spreads through direct or indirect contact, air, water, or vector organisms (such as mosquitoes).
- Control Measures: To contain an epidemic, governments and health organizations implement measures like quarantines, vaccination campaigns, and public health interventions.
Understanding and responding to epidemics requires robust healthcare systems, monitoring mechanisms, and rapid communication for effective containment.
